Vote Komodo island for the new 7 wonders of the world.[clik here]
Komodo National Park includes three major islands: Komodo, Rinca and Padar, as well as numerous smaller islands creating a total surface area (marine and land) of 1817km (proposed extensions would bring the total surface area up to 2,321km2). As well as being home to the Komodo dragon, the Park provides refuge for many other notable terrestrial species such as the orange-footed scrub fowl, an endemic rat, and the Timor deer. Moreover, the Park includes one of the richest marine environments including coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, seamounts, and semi-enclosed bays. These habitats harbor more than 1,000 species of fish, some 260 species of reef-building coral, and 70 species of sponges. Dugong, sharks, manta rays, at least 14 species of whales, dolphins, and sea turtles also make Komodo National Park their home.
Komodo National Park is located in the center of the Indonesian archipelago, between the islands of Sumbawa and Flores. Established in 1980, initially the main purpose of the Park was to conserve the unique Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) and its habitat. However, over the years, the goals for the Park have expanded to protecting its entire biodiversity, both terrestrial and marine. In 1986, the Park was declared a World Heritage Site and a Man and Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO, both indications of the Park's biological importance.
Threats to terrestrial biodiversity include the increasing pressure on forest cover and water resources as the local human population has increased 800% over the past 60 years. In addition, the Timor deer population, the preferred prey source for the endangered Komodo dragon, is still being poached. Destructive fishing practices such as dynamite-, cyanide, and compressor fishing severely threaten the Park's marine resources by destroying both the habitat (coral reefs) and the resource itself (fish and invertebrate stocks). The present situation in the Park is characterized by reduced but continuing destructive fishing practices primarily by immigrant fishers, and high pressure on demersal stocks like lobsters, shellfish, groupers and napoleon wrasse. Pollution inputs, ranging from raw sewage to chemicals, are increasing and may pose a major threat in the future.
Today, the PKA Balai Taman Nasional Komodo and PT. Putri Naga Komodo are working together to protect the Park's vast resources. Our goals are to protect the Park's biodiversity (both marine and terrestrial) and the breeding stocks of commercial fishes for replenishment of surrounding fishing grounds. The main challenge is to reduce both threats to the resources and conflicts between incompatible activities. Both parties have a long term commitment to protecting the marine biodiversity of Komodo National Park.
CO2 levels may already be too high for coral reefs to survive
Unless changes are made soon, our children may be the last generation who are able to see coral reefs and the wonderful wildlife that can be found living on them. Due to the combined effect of ocean acidification and ocean warming, coral reef survival is balancing on a knife edge, warns a meeting of leading scientists.
CO2 levels will be too high for coral reefs to survive
Organised by the Zoological Society of London (ZSL), the International Programme on the State of the Ocean (IPSO) and the Royal Society, the meeting identified the level of atmospheric CO2 predicted to result in the demise of coral reefs.
At anticipated rates of emission increase, it is expected that 450 ppm CO2 will be reached before 2050. At that point, corals may be on a path to extinction within a matter of decades. The safe level of CO2 that we should strive for is 320 ppm: 360 is now known to be the level at which reefs cease to be viable in the long term.
Mass coral bleaching events already happening
At today's CO2 level of 387 ppm, repeated cycles of coral death from mass bleaching have already sent most coral reefs into serious decline. By 2050, the remaining coral reefs could fall victim to ocean acidification. Such a catastrophe would not be confined to reefs, but could start of a domino-like sequence of the fall of other marine ecosystems.
Scientific evidence shows that we have long passed the point at which the marine environment offers reefs a guaranteed future. The kitchen is on fire and it's spreading round the house. If we act quickly and decisively we may be able to put it out before the damage becomes irreversible. That is where corals are now.
Now, there is every reason to believe that the oceans may in fact be the most vulnerable sector of our planet to climate change - with dire consequences for us all.Source WildlifeExtra
The threat of climate change means that for the first time humanity is faced with the very real possibility of extinction. The root cause of the ecological crisis is capitalism’s drive to maximize immediate profits above all else.
The UN has estimated that the total cost of conserving tropical forests, reforesting the Earth to an environmentally healthy level, reversing desertification, developing renewable energy and implementing energy efficient practices is about the same as just a few months of global military spending.
This is only one example of why this system is profoundly at odds with a sustainable planet. The exploitation of nature is as fundamental to the profit system as the exploitation of workers. Capitalist economics treats the air, rivers, seas and soil as a “free gift of nature” to business. Most major companies aren’t quite so honest. The big polluters spend millions advertising themselves as “green”, while they continue to plunder the Earth to keep the shareholders happy.
The market system can’t help preserve the environment for future generations because it cannot take into account the long-term needs of people and planet. The competition between individual companies to make a profitable return on their investment excludes rational and sustainable planning.
This thirst for profit prevents pro-capitalist governments from responding rationally to the climate crisis — despite the immense scale of the threat.
Stopping climate change is impossible unless the profit motive is removed from the equation. The crisis poses a big choice. We can continue in the ways of capitalism and an inhabitable planet, or we can start down the democratic socialist path — a path of harmony with nature, grassroots democracy and respect for life.
Thunnus is a genus of ocean-dwelling fish in the family Scombridae, all of which are tuna, although other tuna species are found in other genera. The name of the genus is the Latinized form of the Greek θύννος, thýnnos, tuna, the word being first mentioned in Homer. There are eight species:
* Albacore, Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre, 1788).
* Bigeye tuna, Thunnus obesus (Lowe, 1839).
* Blackfin tuna, Thunnus atlanticus (Lesson, 1831).
* Pacific bluefin tuna, Thunnus orientalis (Temminck & Schlegel, 1844).
* Northern bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus (Linnaeus, 1758).
* Southern bluefin tuna, Thunnus maccoyii (Castelnau, 1872).
* Longtail tuna, Thunnus tonggol (Bleeker, 1851).
* Yellowfin tuna, Thunnus albacares (Bonnaterre, 1788). 
ALBACORE
The albacore, Thunnus alalunga, is a type of tuna in the family Scombridae. This species is also called albacore fish, albacore tuna, longfin, albies, pigfish, tombo ahi, binnaga, Pacific albacore, German bonito (but see bonito), longfin tuna, longfin tunny, or even just tuna. It is the only tuna species which may be marketed as "white meat tuna" in the United States.
It is found in the open waters of all tropical and temperate oceans, and the Mediterranean Sea. Lengths range up to 140 cm and weights up to 45 kg.
The pectoral fins of the albacore are very long, as much as 50% of the total length. The dorsal spines are 8 to 10 in number, and well forward of the rays of the dorsal fin. The anterior spines are much longer, giving a concave outline to the spiny part of the dorsal fin.
Albacore is a prized food, and the albacore fishery is economically significant. Methods of fishing include pole and line, long-line fishing, trolling, and some purse seining. It is also sought after by sport fishers.
The National Scientific Committee (NSC) conducts regularly scheduled stock assessments of Pacific albacore. The 2003 stock assessment found the albacore stocks to be at or near record highs. The North and South Pacific albacore stocks are not over fished. The ISC findings are accepted by the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission and the Western Central Pacific Fisheries Commission and employed in the responsible management of Pacific albacore tuna stocks. Regrettably, the same cannot be said for Atlantic stocks of albacore. Assessments of the North and South Atlantic stocks showed them to be vulnerable and critically endangered respectively, due to significant population reductions measured through an index of abundance and considering "actual or potential levels of exploitation".
SeaChoice ranks albacore as a "best choice" for consumers, although notes some "moderate concerns" regarding the management effectiveness (in particular, no definitive survey of the albacore stock of the Indian Ocean fishery has taken place), and "moderate concern" over the fishing stock, especially regarding the North Atlantic albacore population, which the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) considers overfished with overfishing still occurring. The southern Atlantic stock is not considered overfished. The North Pacific and South Pacific albacore stocks are not overfished and not experiencing overfishing.
Consumers are increasingly concerned about the sustainability of fisheries. A number of programs have been developed to help consumers identify and support responsible and sustainable fisheries. Perhaps the most widely accepted of these programs is that of the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC). The MSC declared the U.S. North and South Pacific albacore pole & line and troll fisheries ("pole & troll") as the only certified sustainable tuna fisheries in the world. Products from MSC certified sustainable fisheries are readily identifiable by the MSC's distinctive blue and white "eco-label".
By purchasing products bearing the MSC eco-label, consumers express their support for sustainable fisheries and encourage the use of sound fishing methods that promote the future health and abundance of ocean ecosystems.
In some parts of the world, other species may be called "albacore":
1. Blackfin tuna (albacore) - Thunnus atlanticus;
2. Yellowfin tuna (albacore, autumn albacore, yellowfinned albacore) - Thunnus albacares;
3. Yellowtail amberjack (albacore) - Seriola lalandi;
4. Kawakawa (false albacore) - Euthynnus affinis;
5. Little tunny (false albacore) - Euthynnus alletteratus.
BIGEYE TUNA
The bigeye tuna, Thunnus obesus, is an important food fish and highly sought after recreational game fish. It is a member of the true tunas of the genus Thunnus. Bigeye tuna are found in the open waters of all tropical and temperate oceans, but not the Mediterranean Sea. Its length is between 60 and 250 cm (23 and 93 inches). Maximum weight probably exceeds 400 lb with the all-tackle angling record standing at 392 lbs. Bigeye tuna are large deep-bodied streamlined fish with large heads and eyes. The pectoral fins are very long, reaching back as far as the second dorsal fin. There are 13 or 14 dorsal spines.
A longer-lived fish than the closely related yellowfin tuna, the bigeye tuna is thought to have a lifespan of up to 10 to 12 years, with individuals achieving sexual maturity at the age of four. Spawning has been recorded as taking place in June and July in the northwestern tropical Atlantic and in January and February in the Gulf of Guinea in the eastern Atlantic, which is, so far, the only known nursery area for Atlantic bigeye tuna.
Feed items include both epipelagic and mesopelagic species, with deep diving behaviour during the day thought to be related to the seeking of prey. Satellite tagging has shown that bigeye tuna often spend prolonged periods cruising deep below the surface during the daytime, sometimes making dives as deep as 500 metres. These movements are thought to be in response to the vertical migrations of prey organisms in the deep scattering layer.
Physiological adaptations to foraging in these cold (bigeye tuna have been tracked entering water as cold as 5 degrees Celsius) and oxygen-poor subsurface waters include blood that is highly efficient in extracting oxygen from the water even in oxygen-poor conditions, and vision that is highly adapted for effective function in low light conditions. The heart of bigeye tuna also has an unusual ability to function effectively at the low ambient temperatures encountered while foraging in cold subsurface water. Nonetheless, bigeye tuna must make return trips to warmer surface waters to warm themselves up.
Bigeye tuna are amongst the tuna species most threatened by overfishing. Juvenile bigeye tuna associate closely with floating objects such as logs, buoys and other flotsam, which makes them extremely susceptible to purse seine fishing in conjunction with man-made FADs (Fish Aggregation Devices). Bigeye mature at a later age than other commercially important tuna species such as skipjack and yellowfin tuna, and the removal of large numbers of juvenile bigeye before they reach breeding age is a major concern to fisheries managers, scientists and sport fishermen.
NORTHERN BLUEFIN TUNA
The northern bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), or giant bluefin tuna, is a species of tuna native to both the western and eastern Atlantic Ocean, as well as the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. Although not native to the Pacific Ocean, the species is now commercially cultivated off the Japanese coast. The species was in the past called the common tunny. It is often referred to simply as the "bluefin" or "bluefin tuna", but this name is ambiguous as it is also sometimes used for the southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) and the Pacific bluefin tuna (T. orientalis).
The body of the northern bluefin tuna is cigar-shaped and robust. Northern bluefin tuna can live for 30 years. Due to overfishing of this species, few known specimens grow to a mature age and typical specimens average 2-2.5 m (6.5-7 ft) long and around 350 kg (770 lb) in weight. The species can reach a maximum length of about 4.3 m (14 ft) and 680 kg (1,496 lb), the largest recorded. Northern bluefin tuna can easily be distinguished from other members of the tuna family by the relatively short length of their pectoral fins.
The northern bluefin tuna typically hunts small fish and invertebrates such as sardines, herring, mackerel, squid and crustaceans.
Bluefin tuna are caught by sports fishermen using heavy-duty rod and reels and by commercial fishermen using purse seine gear. 
The northern bluefin tuna is an important source of seafood, providing most of the tuna used in sushi. To supply sushi markets, the bluefin tuna is reported to be fished at 4 times the sustainable rate. As a result, some fisheries of bluefin are considered overfished, and this problem is compounded by the bluefin's slow growth rate and late maturity. The Atlantic population of the species has declined by nearly 90 percent since the 1970s. The species is currently classified as data deficient, unlike the southern bluefin tuna which is critically endangered. Consumers have been recommended to avoid consumption of bluefin tuna until stocks recover.
SOUTHERN BLUEFIN TUNA
The southern bluefin tuna, Thunnus maccoyii, is a tuna of the family Scombridae found in open southern hemisphere waters of all the worlds oceans mainly between 30°S and 50°S, to nearly 60°S. The southern bluefin tuna is a large streamlined fast swimming fish with a long slender caudal peduncle and relatively short dorsal, pectoral and anal fins. At up to 2.5 m (8.2 ft) and weighing up to 400 kg (882 lbs) it is one of the largest bony fishes. The body is completely covered in small scales. The body color is blue-black on the back and silver-white on the flanks and belly, with bright yellow caudal keels in adult specimens. The first dorsal fin color is grey with a yellow tinge, the second dorsal is red-brown, and the finlets are yellow with a darker border.
The southern bluefin tuna is an opportunistic feeder, preying on a wide variety of fishes, crustaceans, cephalopods, salps, and other marine animals.
The southern bluefin tuna is classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Since the 1950s, when industrial fishing commenced, the total population of southern bluefin tuna has declined by about 92 percent.
In 1994 the then existing voluntary management arrangement between Australia, Japan and New Zealand was formalised when the Convention for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna came into force. The Convention created the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT). Its objective is to ensure, through appropriate management, the conservation and optimum utilisation of the global southern bluefin tuna fishery. Later, South Korea, Taiwan and the Philippines have joined, or are cooperating with, the Commission. The CCSBT is headquartered in Canberra, Australia.
YELLOWFIN TUNA
The yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) is a type of tuna found in open waters of tropical and subtropical seas worldwide. Also known as ahi tuna, from its Hawaiian name ‘ahi, yellowfin is becoming a popular replacement for the severely depleted supplies of Southern bluefin tuna. It is an epipelagic fish ranging in the top 100 m (330 feet) of the water column. Reported sizes have ranged
as high as 239 cm (94 inches) in length and 200 kg (440 lb) in weight. The second dorsal fin and the anal fin are both bright yellow, thus the common name, and can be very long in mature specimens, as are the pectoral fins. The main body is very dark metallic blue, changing to silver on the belly, which has about 20 vertical lines.
Yellowfins tend to school with fishes of the same size, including other species of tuna, and larger fish. They are often seen with dolphins, porpoises, whales and whale sharks. Yellowfins eat other fish, crustaceans, and squid.
Recent studies proved that this species is endangered. Especially in the Mediterranean sea, due to over fishing serving commercial interests regardless of high concern from the scientific and environmental community. The extinction of the "yellowfin (ahi) tuna" could occur in the next 15 years if governments don't take serious measures to protect the specie by lowering the fishing quotas tremendously and by reacting to illegal fishing.
Commercial fisheries catch yellowfin tuna with encircling nets (purse seines) and with longlines. The fish are mainly sold in frozen or canned form, but are also popular as sashimi. Otherwise Yellowfin tuna are a popular sport fish in many parts of their range and are prized for their speed and strength when fought on rod and reel as well as for their table qualities. References http://wikipedia.org
The location of Indonesia Ocean in equator region with tropical climate caused its have much potential fisheries resource. This condition make consequential to fishing gears and technologies development. There are number of fishing gears for marine fish and shrimp in Indonesia that category into 10 types.
1.Shrimp Nets /Trawl (Pukat Udang)
There are 3 types of shrimp nets according to the opening of the trawl mouth: Otter trawl, Beam trawl and Paranzella. The fishing ground of the trawl is Arafuru Sea and Banda Sea to capture shrimps like Penaeus monodon, Penaeus merguensis, Metapenaeus ensis and Parapenaeus spp.
2.Seine Nets (Pukat Kantong)
The design of Seine nets has 3 main part: bag, body, and leg/wing. There are many kinds of seine net: Lampara (payang), Beach Seine (pukat pantai), Dogol. The fishing ground of the gear is in around of Indonesia Ocean especially in Jawa Sea and Sumatera coastal. Capture pelagic and demersal fish and shrimps like Enthynnus spp (tongkol), Rastregiller sp (kembung), and Sardinella fimbriata (lemuru).
3.Purse Seine (Pukat Cincin)
The design of purse seine has ring located in purse line to make the bag in the end of the operation in oerder the fish can’t trough away from the nets. The fishing ground of the gears is Java Sea and Sumatera coastal. The dominan cathcs is pelagic fish like Enthynnus spp (tongkol), Rastregiller sp (kembung), Katsuwonus pelagic (cakalang), and Sardinella fimbriata (lemuru).
4.Gill Nets (Jaring Insang)
The design of gill net according to this operational: Drift gill net (jaring Insang hanyut), Set gill net (Jaring insang labuh), Encircling gill net (jaring ingsang lingkar), and Trammel Net. The fishing ground of the gears is coastal and coral in around Indonesia Sea. The dominant capture is pelagic and demersal fish and shrimps like Sceinedae (tiga waja), Formio niger (bawal hitam), Pampus argentus (bawal putih), Lates calcalifer (kakap), Serranidae (kerapu) and many kinds of shrimps.
5.Lift Nets (Jaring Angkat)
Lift nets is one of the fishing gears which the operational of the gear with vertical dropping and lifting the gears. There are 7 types of the lift nets: Bagang (bagan), Dip nets/Scoop (Serok), Crab lift nets (jaring rajungan/kepiting), lift net (Bondong), Four boots lift net (Soma cang), and Cross lift (anco). The fishing ground of the lift nets is around of the Indonesia Ocean especially in Makasar Sea and many rivers. The dominant capture is small pelagic fish like Stolepharus spp and molussca like loligo spp, Sepia spp, and Octopus spp.
6.Hook and Lines (Pancing)
The design of the gears is made of 2 main components: hooks (mata pancing) and line (tali pancing). There are many types of the hook and line: Longline (rawai tuna), Pole and line /Huhate (pancing cakalang), Troll line (pancing tonda), and Hand line (pancing ulur). The fishing ground of the gears is in Indian Ocean (Northern Java and Sumatera Island) and Pacific Ocean (Southern Sulawesi and Papua Island). The dominant capture is Thunus spp, Katsuwonus pelamis, Scomberomorus comersoni, Sphyraena spp, and Priacanthus spp.
7.Traps (Perangkap)
The main principle of the operation of the gears is setting permanently in the water and attracting the fish to enter the gears. There are many types of the gears: Fish pots (bubu), Half circling traps (Perangkap setengah lingkaran), Stake traps (Sero), and Tidal traps (perangkap pasang surut). The fishing ground of the gears including rivers, lakes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs and open seas. The main capture is many kinds of crustacean like Portunus spp, Scylla serata, and Panulirus spp.
8.Drive in Nets
The operational of the drive in nets like traps. The difference of the gears is made from nets with large scale of body and bag. This gear usually is operated in coral reef areas to capture many kinds of coral fish. This gear has 6 types: Muroami, Soma malalugis, Jaring kalase, Jaring klotok, Lari-larian and Jaring Saden.
9.Shell fish and Sea Weeds Collection (Alat pengumpul kerang dan rumput laut)
10.The Others Fishing Gears
There are much fishing gears that uncategorized into nine types of gears. This condition is according the need of fisherman, topography of the sea, resources. The gears are Encircling nets, rake, cover nets, harpoon, rifle, bow, arrow, and etc.
Sea grasses are seed-bearing, flowering, rooted plants, which grow submerged, exclusively in marine coastal waters and coastal wetlands. There are only about 60 species of sea grasses. The actual number species is being reviewed currently. Like grasses in terrestrial habitats, they form meadows on the bed of coastal seas. They are dependent on light penetration for photosynthesis; therefore they generally grow only in clear, shallow waters, in estuaries and coastal seas. They can not survive out of waters, therefore they often grow where is shelters from a sand bar or coral reefs.
Sea grasses should not be confused with seaweeds. Multi-cellular green and brown algae – also found in marine environment- are usually called seaweeds or kelp. Although they can photosynthesis and make their own food, seaweeds lack complex specialized cellular tissues for transport of food and water that are found in sea grasses. They also lack flowers and fruits –structures that are specialized for reproduction- as well as roots.
WHERE ARE SEA GRASSES ARE FOUND IN THE WORLD
Sea grasses are found in clear, shallow coastal water of every continent expect Antarctica. In tropical oceans, they are nearly always found near mangrove and coral reefs. In temperate areas, they are found near salt marshes and kelp forests. They survive in inter-tidal areas in sites sheltered from wave action or where water is trapped at low tide. About half the world’s sea grass species are tropical, while the other half is temperate. The Indo-Pacific region is the center of sea grass diversity in the world, with 24 species and large underwater meadows.
SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS OF SEAGRASSES
Sea grasses are the only flowering plants that have adapted to a completely submerged life in the sea. Because of this, they have some special adaptations.
1.Adaptations to withstand wave energy
Underground plant parts such as rhizomes (an underground stem that store food and grows horizontally) and roots are extensive and close to each other, providing anchorage in many places to these plants. In addition, leaves of sea grasses are usually flat, ribbon-shaped and flexible; the stems are also flexible (as seen in Enhalus, Thalasia, and Cymodocea spp.). Because of this, the force of waves does not break the leaves. Instead, the leaves bend with the water.
2.Adaptations to growing when completely submerged
Sub-marine pollination.
All except one group of sea grasses are pollinated in sub-marine conditions. Male and female parts of flowers extend well above the petals and so allow foe easy movement of pollen in the waters. Pollen grains are oval-shaped or joined together to become elongated and so move easily in the waters (as seen in Halophila spp.). Further, as flowers are either male or female, cross pollination is favoured. Some species have single sex plants, increasing this cross pollination. Sea grasses also reproduce asexually. They produce new shoots from underground roots and rhizomes as they spread across the sea floor. This produces new units. Remarkably, sea grasses can grow asexually for thousands of years, extending over many hectares.
Air-filled tissues.
Sea grasses have extensive air0filled tissues called lacunae, which contain oxygen that is needed for the life activities of these submerged plants. These lacunae also help in flotation of the leaves. The leaves have very thin cuticle or outer layer. Gas exchange with the environment is facilitated by this thin cuticle and by the air-filled tissues.
Salt tolerance
Compared to land plants, sea grasses can tolerate high salt concentrations found in oceans –up to 36 parts per thousand.
Growth
Sea grasses grow underwater rooted to the sea floor. The underground rhizomes and roots are in black sediments with no oxygen and therefore, need for their survival, sugars and oxygen produced during photosynthesis in the above-ground plants. Thus, sea grasses need more sunlight then alga, which do not have underground parts. This limits the depth to which sea grasses can grow. The need more than 10% of the light falling at the water surface compared to algae, which only 1%
WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF SEAGRASSES MEADOWS
Sea grasses meadows form ecologically and economically important habitats because they provide many ecosystem services.
1.Provisioning services
Many edible fish are found living in sea grasses beds. Sea grasses meadows, like mangroves, are nursery areas for many finfish and shellfish. Because of this, they are critical in coastal fisheries.
2.Regulating services
Sea grass meadows act as filters for coastal waters. The leafy canopy of sea grasses slow down water currents, trapping particles, nutrients organic matter and pollutants washed from inland waters to coastal seas. Because of this, sea grasses act as a filter of coastal waters, clearing and cleaning waters.
Sea grasses meadows stabilize the floor of coastal seas. The underground stems of sea grasses prevent the sediments trapped by leaves from being resuspended, thereby stabilizing the sea beds and preventing sand from being washed away and churned up by wave action.
3.Supporting services
Although they are relatively few species of sea grasses, they can house hundreds of other species –microorganisms, algae, invertebrates and vertebrates. Because of their three-dimensional structure in the water, sea grass meadows provide protection for juvenile fish and many marine larvae. It is estimated that a single acre of sea grass may support as many as 40.000 fishes and 50 million small invertebrates. Sea grasses meadows are the feeding sites of juvenile Horseshoes crabs –which belong to an ancient evolutionary lineage. Globally threatened vertebrate species such as marine turtles and marine mammals (e.g. Dugongs) are also found in these ecosystems in the tropics.
Sea grasses are primary producers. A single acre of sea-grass is estimated to produce over nine tones of leaves per year, providing a vast amount of food for many fauna.
Sea-grasses enrich nutrients in coastal waters. Sea-grassses take up nutrients from the soils and nutrients and carbons from the water column and sediments to use for maintaining their very high productivity. When numerous plants and animals found in this three dimensional habitat –as well as sea grasses- die, the released nutrients enter marine system as carbon and other nutrients.
Sea grasses meadows are carbon sinks. Sea grasses absorb carbon dioxide from the oceans when they photosynthesis. Like forests on land, they fuction, therefore, as carbon sinks, removing carbon dioxide from the seas.
4.Culture services
Recreational services. Beaches are popular for recreation and many people enjoy walking on the beach and paddling on beach fronts. Sea grasses meadows, lika coral reefs, attract divers and snorkellers.
Traditional services. In many countries, traditional fishing practices are supported by sea grasses meadows.
5.other services
biological sentinels. Sea grasses have been called ‘biological sentinels’ or ‘coastal canaries’. Like canaries that were taken into coal mines to test the quality of the air, sea grasses respond to changes in the quality of water, indicating deterioration of the environment by degrading and declining before dying. These changes are visible very quickly so that it is possible to take management actions.
Earth Day, celebrated in the world on April 22, is a day designed to inspire awareness and appreciation for the earth's environment. It was founded by U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson as an environmental teach-in in 1970 and is celebrated in many countries every year. This date is Spring in the Northern Hemisphere and Autumn in the Southern Hemisphere.
History of the April 22 Earth Day
In September 1969 at a conference in Seattle, Washington, U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin announced that in spring 1970 there would be a nation wide grassroots demonstration on the environment. This occurred during a time of great concern about over population and when there was a strong movement towards "Zero Population Growth."
Responding to widespread environmental degradation, Gaylord Nelson, called for an environmental teach-in, or Earth Day, to be held on April 22, 1970. Over 20 million people participated that year, and Earth Day is now observed each year on April 22 by more than 500 million people and national governments in 175 countries.
Founded by the organizers of the first April 22 Earth Day in 1970, Earth Day Network promotes environmental citizenship and year round progressive action worldwide. Earth Day Network is a driving force steering environmental awareness around the world. Through Earth Day Network, activists connect change in local, national, and global policies. Earth Day Network’s international network reaches over 17,000 organizations in 174 countries, while the domestic program engages 5,000 groups and over 25,000 educators coordinating millions of community development and environmental protection activities throughout the year. Earth Day is the only event celebrated simultaneously around the globe by people of all backgrounds, faiths and nationalities. More than a half billion people participate in Earth Day Network campaigns every year.
Significance of April 22
1. The date as the one that could maximize participation on college campuses for what he conceived as an environmental teach-in
2. April 22 was the birthday of Saint Francis of Assisi, world’s first environmentalist.
3. April 21 was the birthday of John Muir, who founded the Sierra Club. This was not lost on organizers who thought that April 22 was Muir's birthday.
4. April 22, 1970 was the 100th birthday of Vladimir Lenin.
5. April 22 is also the birthday of Julius Sterling Morton, the founder of Arbor Day, a national tree-planting holiday started in 1872.
The Earth Day symbol
The Earth Day symbol adopted from ecology symbol which created by Ron Cobb and was published on November 7th, 1969, in the Los Angeles Free Press and then placed it in the public domain. The symbol was a combination of the letters "E" and "O" taken from the words "Environment" and "Organism", respectively. Look magazine incorporated the symbol into a flag in their April 21, 1970 issue. The flag was patterned after the flag of the United States, and had thirteen stripes alternating green and white. Its canton was green with the ecology symbol where the stars would be in the United States flag.
Coral reef in Raja Ampat, Indonesia ©Jones/Shimlock-Secret SeaSpanning eastern Indonesia, parts of Malaysia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Timor Leste and the Solomon Islands (see the map), the Coral Triangle is the global center of marine biodiversity and one of the world’s top priorities for marine conservation. This extraordinary expanse of ocean covers an area of 2.3 million square miles (5.7 million km2), the equivalent to half of the entire United States. It is home to over 600 reef-building coral species, or 75% of all species known to science, and more than 3,000 species of reef fish. Over 150 million people live within the Coral Triangle, of which an estimated 2.25 million fishers are dependant on marine resources for their livelihoods.
Coral reefs are productive and diverse ecosystems that cover a mere 0.2% of the ocean floor, yet support an estimated 25% of all marine life. The global asset value of coral reefs has been estimated at nearly US$800 billion over a 50-year timeframe. More than 500 million people depend upon reef resources, and one billion people worldwide are direct beneficiaries of coral reef goods and services.
In the landmark report ‘Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia’, the World Resources Institute estimates that 88% of Southeast Asia’s reefs are threatened. Among the various types of threats, over-fishing and destructive fishing are the most pervasive. Another key threat is the increased frequency of mass coral bleaching events.
Over-fishing means that fishers extract more fish than nature can produce over the long term. Besides decreasing the profitability and long-term prospects of the fisheries sector, over-fishing results in the extirpation of highly-valued species such as grouper and Napoleon wrasse. Fisheries experts from Indonesia find that the large majority of Indonesia’s fisheries are over- or fully exploited, which means that any expansion of the fishing fleet is ill-advised. Sadly, over-fishing is exacerbated by perverse subsidies that enable the fishing sector to continue fishing already over-exploited stocks.
Destructive fishing not only contributes to over-fishing, it also destroys the habitat on which exploited fish depend. Blast fishing, either with home-made or industrial explosives, is perhaps the best known example of destructive fishing. Other examples are bottom trawling, fishing with poisons, and fishing with certain kinds of fish traps. The loss of income due to blast fishing in Indonesia over the last 25 years is approximately US$3.8 billion. Global warming is already making a significant impact on marine biodiversity and the lives of those who depend on the reefs for income. A major threat to coral reefs comes from the periodic mass bleaching of corals caused by increased temperatures in the seas. In the 1998 El Nino weather event, 75% of reefs worldwide bleached and 16% died. Coral bleaching is predicted to become an annual event within 25-50 years.
MPAs are carefully selected areas where human development and exploitation of natural resources are regulated to protect species and habitats. By providing refugia for exploited fish stocks, MPAs provide benefits for commercial fisheries. Healthy fish stocks in MPAs replenish surrounding fishing grounds with eggs, larvae, and adult fish, and MPAs serve as basis for ecotourism and other livelihoods for local communities. MPAs work to protect functioning ecosystems, bringing benefits both inside and beyond their boundaries to countries, regions, businesses, and people.
The design networks of MPAs is based on the latest scientific principles of resilience, which means that we focus our efforts on reefs that are most likely to survive threats. Our approach to resilience is based on the following four components:
1) Protecting a representative range of habitat types, including critical habitats of target species, and replicating these at multiple locations to spread the risk of total loss of any one type of reef.
2) Protecting coral communities that resist bleaching. For example, coral reefs located where vertical mixing cools the heated surface waters may be less prone to thermal bleaching as sea temperatures rise. These refugia provide secure sources of larvae that replenish damaged areas –a rock-solid investment similar to blue-chip fixed income funds.
3) Understanding coral reef connectivity in order to create MPAs that are linked by ocean currents, larval dispersal patterns, and species movements.
4) Increasing the effectiveness of management to respond to direct threats, especially over-fishing and destructive fishing. Implementation of no-take areas is a critical component in this respect. The healthier the reefs, the more likely they will be to bounce back after a catastrophic event.
Indonesia focuses on three ecoregions in Indonesia (Papua, the Lesser Sundas, the Sulawesi Seas).
Derawan fishing village ©Donald Bason/The Nature Conservancy
Komodo National Park. The park is home to an amazing 1,000 species of fish, 260 species of reef-building corals, 70 species of sponges, 17 whale and dolphin species, two species of sea turtles, and the famous Komodo dragon.
Wakatobi National Park. Wakatobi is the largest marine national park in Indonesia and one of the country’s highest priorities for marine conservation. Furthermore, the partnership has strengthened the Park’s surveillance system, and the partnership has conducted surveys among local communities to solicit inputs for management and to explore opportunities for involvement of local communities in planning and implementation of Park management. Wakatobi’s conservation program further includes scientific surveys of the Park’s natural resources, raising awareness of the importance of MPAs, training park rangers and local NGOs in MPA management, conducting monitoring and surveillance, promoting sustainable resource use, and protecting fish spawning aggregations.
The Raja Ampat Islands. The Raja Ampat, or “Four Kings,” archipelago encompasses more than 9.8 million acres of land and sea and is the diversity epicenter of the Coral Triangle. Scientific surveys of Raja Ampat recorded the highest coral and fish diversities found on Earth, including 537 coral species— an incredible 75% of all known species —and 1,074 fish species.
The Derawan Islands. Renowned by divers for their rich coral reefs and hundreds of manta rays, the Derawan Islands feature some of the most significant green turtle nesting beaches in Southeast Asia and a unique saltwater lake with four endemic, stingless jellyfish species. The area’s reefs are extremely diverse because of the influence of the Berau River on the coastal waters.
Mangroves (generally) are trees and shrubs that grow in saline (brackish) coastal habitats in the tropics and subtropics. Plants in mangals are diverse but all are able to exploit their habitat (the intertidal zone) by developing physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia, high salinity and frequent tidal inundation. About 110 species, 54 species in 20 genera from 16 families constitute the "true mangroves", have been identified as belonging to the mangal.[2] Each species has its own capabilities and solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation
Once established, roots of mangrove plants provide a habitat for oysters and help to impede water flow, thereby enhancing the deposition of sediment in areas where it is already occurring. Mangroves protect the coast from erosion, surge storms (especially during hurricanes), and tsunamis.
Climate change is any long-term significant change in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region (or, more relevantly to contemporary socio-political concerns, of the Earth as a whole) over an appropriately significant period of time. Climate change reflects abnormal variations to the expected climate within the Earth's atmosphere and subsequent effects on other parts of the Earth, such as in the ice caps over durations ranging from decades to millions of years.
Climate Change is the result of a great many factors including the dynamic processes of the Earth itself, external forces including variations in sunlight intensity, and more recently by human activities, which might in future be deliberate geoengineering. External factors that can shape climate are often called climate forcings and include such processes as variations in solar radiation, deviations in the Earth's orbit, and the level of greenhouse gas concentrations.
1. Glaciation
2. Ocean variability
3. Hysteresis
4. Effects of CO2 on climate change
5. Other factors driving climate change
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